ANGRY MEN: Males are often thought of as the more hostile sex, but research actually paints a more complex picture
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The notion that men have shorter fuses than women has acquired the status of a psychological shibboleth. More than 30 years ago Stanford University psychologists Eleanor Maccoby and Carol Jacklin concluded in an influential book that sex differences were minimal in most psychological traits but considerable when it comes to aggression. This opinion has endured ever since.
Were Maccoby and Jacklin right? Recent research bears out the broad brushstrokes of their claim but reveals that women can be equally, if less dangerously, belligerent.
Mad Men
In 1995 the late psychologist David Lykken of the University of Minnesota wrote that if we could magically place all boys and men between the ages of 12 and 28 in a cryogenic freeze, we would slash the rate of violent crime by two thirds. The data bear out Lykken’s thought experiment. In the U.S., the rate of violent crime for girls and women aged 10 and older is one in 56; the corresponding figure among their male counterparts is one in nine. Men commit close to 90 percent of the murders in the U.S. and more murders than women in all the countries researchers have examined, according to a 1999 report by psychologist Anne Campbell of Durham University in England.
Indeed, investigators have consistently found that short of criminal activity, men exhibit more frequent and more extreme levels of physical aggression with one exception: in domestic disputes, as we will see, the tables are often turned. In a 2004 mathematical synthesis of 196 studies (known as a meta-analysis), psychologist John Archer of the University of Central Lancashire in England found that men are more physically aggressive (by various measures) than women across all ages, with the difference peaking between the ages of 20 and 30. This sex difference extended to all 10 countries Archer examined, which included the U.S., Finland, Spain, India, Japan and New Zealand. Interestingly, researchers have found men to be more physically aggressive in their mental lives as well. Compared with women, men harbor more frequent and enduring homicidal fantasies, more often think about enacting revenge against their enemies, and report more physically aggressive dreams.
Evening the Score
Still, studies show that women are at least as prone to feeling anger as men and that they fight plenty. Instead of expressing their angry emotions with their fists, women tend to use what in 1995 psychologist Nicki Crick, then at the University of Illinois, termed “relational aggression,” a less overt form characterized by social manipulation, especially of same-sex peers. Popularized by such books as Odd Girl Out: The Hidden Culture of Aggression in Girls, by Rachel Simmons (Harcourt, 2002), relational aggression includes spreading rumors, gossiping, glaring, eye rolling, giving others the “silent treatment,” sending nasty notes or text messages behind rivals’ backs, excluding others from social gatherings, poking fun at the appearance of competitors, and assorted other stealth attacks. The so-called gentler sex may opt for such tactics because they are socialized to not show hostility openly and also because their relative lack of physical strength makes violence seem a less promising strategy.
Girls do not have an exclusive claim to relational aggression, however. A 2008 meta-analysis by psychologist Noel Card of the University of Arizona and his colleagues suggests that it is equally common in girls and boys across both childhood and adolescence. Other research suggests this absence of sex differences persists into adulthood.
More surprisingly, women are also just as likely as men to express hostility—in this case physically—in the context of a romantic relationship. The popular stereotype of a domestic abuser is a man who habitually hurts his female partner. Yet research by Archer and sociologist Murray Straus of the University of New Hampshire calls this scenario into question. Surprisingly, their analyses demonstrate that men and women exhibit roughly equal rates of violence within relationships; some studies hint that women’s rates of physical aggression are slightly higher. This apparent equality is not solely a result of women fighting back, because it holds even for altercations that women start. Still, domestic abuse within intimate relationships poses a greater threat to women than to men. Women suffer close to two thirds of the injuries, largely because men are stronger on average than women. In addition, women and men differ in the severity of their actions; women are more likely to scratch or slap their partners, and men more commonly punch or choke their partners.
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40 Comments
Add CommentI'll give you one hint - testosterone. If you come back explaining how social training increases testosterone production, I'll kick your butt!
Reply | Report Abuse | Link to thisMen and women can express hostility in very different ways.
Reply | Report Abuse | Link to thisMen may be more "obvious" but women can be vicious - just look at any pubescent girls in school or some women in divorce proceedings.
The definition of belligerence or hostility could vary the results of the study significantly.
candide - Yours is undoubtedly a better verbal description.
Reply | Report Abuse | Link to thisUnhappy males tend to physically respond with violent attacks directed against perceived antagonists. It seems apparent to a male that physical, violent actions are taken when seemingly increasing testosterone levels dictate.
Unhappy females tend to complain incessantly and/or engage in vicious, even devious verbal attacks.
Unhappy couples can often produce escalating antagonistic interactions until, often the male, responds with physical violence, or violence intent redirected into other destructive behaviors.
It is probably true: Boys and men tend to use physical force to solve problems.
Reply | Report Abuse | Link to thisGirls and women prefer poison.
BTW: Violence is in most cases easy to identify and to feed as data into statistics.
Poisoning is often overlooked and therefore not seen in these statistics.
There's a big difference between physical violence and verbal aggression (and a good reason why we don't put people in jail for saying nasty things). Let's not equate the two.
Reply | Report Abuse | Link to thisThere's a big difference between physical violence and verbal aggression (and a good reason why we don't put people in jail for saying nasty things). Let's not equate the two.
Reply | Report Abuse | Link to thisOh yeah, you and what army?
Reply | Report Abuse | Link to thisInteresting to see the reference to Murray Strauss, and the information apparently from the Conflict Tactics Scale used here. Wonder how a physiological response to a look of contempt or a strident tone of voice factors into male aggression?
Reply | Report Abuse | Link to thisThat may be so, but what the article tries to point out is that it is far more accepted to yell, belittle, or generally torment verbally than it is to raise a fist.
Reply | Report Abuse | Link to thisAnd don't underestimate the serious nature of verbal assault. I heard recently of an Irish student (or immigrant, I can't recall which) who took her own life because repeated verbal abuse by her peers.
Michael S. Logan - Probably most males know from experience that you've touched on a sensitive area. As an old guy now, I suggest that testosterone levels have a significant influence (along with my adrenaline blocking heart meds), but it can be argued that here is where psychology has always been a significant factor. The physiological response may come into play only as a result of a very complex interpretation of facial expressions and vocal tonality. The same expressions might not evoke the same response in varying social settings, depending on the relative status, etc., of the expressor and observer. You know not to look at anyone cross-eyed in that biker bar...
Reply | Report Abuse | Link to thisJager2 - Surely this is a critical factor int the high suicide rate of all teens, perhaps especially females, as peer acceptance can mean everything during those early years.
Reply | Report Abuse | Link to thisThe basic fact is that men are'nt happy.
Reply | Report Abuse | Link to thisLook at Male vs Female suicide rates.
Men are in the biological equivalent of cultural shock.
Our multi-million year evolution doesn't fit with modern society.
I'm not saying this is anyones fault or that our modern society isn't whats best for advancing mankind.
It's just the way things are.
Options are:
1) wait several million years to evolve into the new enviroment.
2) genetical tamper with our DNA.
3) de-evolve our society (become more primitive)
None are those are going to happen anytime soon.
The basic fact is that men are'nt happy.
Reply | Report Abuse | Link to thisLook at Male vs Female suicide rates.
Men are in the biological equivalent of cultural shock.
Our multi-million year evolution doesn't fit with modern society.
Men are physically different, hormonally different and mentally different to women by at least 10%.
I'm not saying this is anyones fault or that our modern society isn't whats best for advancing mankind.
It's just the way things are.
Options are:
1) wait several million years to evolve into the new enviroment.
2) genetical tamper with our DNA.
3) de-evolve our society (become more primitive)
None are those are going to happen anytime soon.
Never overlook the pain of "relational aggression", as the research so eloquently put it. It does cause some serious damage especially in more intimate social relations.
Reply | Report Abuse | Link to thisNever overlook the stress of "relational aggression" as it is so eloquently put. It has some far-reaching psychosocial damages.
Reply | Report Abuse | Link to thisJager, the irish girl was not merely verbally insulted. She was physically assaulted (knocked into lockers, kicked, tripped, books knocked out of hands, objects thrown at her) on a regular basis in addition to being threatened with violence.
Reply | Report Abuse | Link to thisWhen I read that it was two women who did this, ta da research I was skeptical and I honor your phd's but please honor my masculinity. By golly I'll bet that the crimes men commit are over women and the reverse too with women who commit crimes I'll bet it's over a man. When men cheat on a girl friend or wife it's another women and the same for women, it's over another man.
Reply | Report Abuse | Link to thisSo let's see, here: Men and women are the same with regard to violence except that men are physically stronger, which incentivizes their resort to physical violence rather than the sneaky tricks favored by chicks, which must be explained away as the product of socialization rather than physical impotence. What's more, the fact that men can do a lot more immediately gratifying physical damage when they blow their tops than women can has had scarce influence on the idea that men are more prone to aggression and violence until just recently. I see. Common sense and science: Are they mutually exclusive enterprises?
Reply | Report Abuse | Link to thisMen and women: Same, same but different, and the differences are all the product of socialization, biology, anatomy and physics notwithstanding. And I'm to worship science ... why?
Men and women: Same, same but different, and the differences are all the product of socialization, biology, anatomy and physics notwithstanding. And I'm to worship science ... why?
Reply | Report Abuse | Link to thisThis is exactly why you should 'worship' science.
Because it speaks in common sense not, cos G-d made it that way, or it's a 'fact' because, well it's just a fact.
Some people working in science use styles that do not show much consideration for the sanctity of human beings.
Reply | Report Abuse | Link to thisQuoting from this article :
if we could magically place all boys and men between the ages of 12 and 28 in a cryogenic freeze, we would slash the rate of violent crime by two thirds
& and a science-proned commentator :
Options are:
1) wait several million years to evolve into the new enviroment.
2) genetical tamper with our DNA.
3) de-evolve our society (become more primitive)
Too bad for our culture.
Thank you. Science is about establishing the truth. Not comforting social commentators.
Reply | Report Abuse | Link to thisThank you. Science is about establishing the facts. Not comforting social commentators. There is irrefutable proof that men and women are biologically different. It may upset feminists but tough cookies. It's fact.
Reply | Report Abuse | Link to thisObviously there is irrefutable proof that men and women are biologically different, but I think the question here is: How do their biological differences affect their aggressive behavior? Guess you owe me some cookies.
Reply | Report Abuse | Link to thisConflicts due to sex differences are deplorable.
Reply | Report Abuse | Link to thisIn any case, those in authority receive a severer judgment when the situation deteriorates.
When men fight, they punch each other in the face.
Reply | Report Abuse | Link to thisWhen women fight, they stab each other in the back.
I think men and women both have the same trend of violence.
Reply | Report Abuse | Link to thisPerhaps women are able to hurt someone more viciously.
Men will kill you. Women will just sap you of your will to live. Just another way in which females are superior.
Reply | Report Abuse | Link to thisThis isn't a males vs females issue.
Reply | Report Abuse | Link to thisMales mostly kill other males.
78.2 of victims are male (FBI Uniform Crime Reports)
Males aren't happy.
Males kill themselves and other males.
Males are programmed to be strong protectors and providers.
Modern society makes men feel weak and helpless and bad.
Which leads to more men killing themselves and other males.
moozoo - Yeah, and their high testosterone levels make them get really pissed off at other people, especially the woman who won't give him what he needs and constantly digs at him for not giving her what she wants, but the rules say they gotta get drunk and beat some guy at a bar! Then you get laid off the job!
Reply | Report Abuse | Link to thisAs long as people naturally rely on each other for satisfaction in life, they risk having a frustrating and antagonistic primary relationship. For men that tends to produce violent confrontations, for women, depression.
Wait what? I don't know what's worse, men behaving violently or women who become tormentors.
Reply | Report Abuse | Link to thisSounds like both parts of unhealthy non-socialized people to me trying to be use their ego against other people. I wouldn't say that makes women superior to men at all. At least men know when to cut their losses and move onto more obtainable things (some of them). I'm female and it is RARE to find women who are capable of RATIONAL thinking therefore avoiding unnecessary friction/conflict. Clear thinkers who women whom actually communicate EFFECTIVELY isn't a title that all women hold. I think all of us women know that/have experienced that.
That said, I wish men were a tad bit more evolved in their own right. ;)
Men may be more violent but females are the of cause of most violence in many species. Females need not be blamed for this, this in fact is natural and essential evolutionary process for survival of species.
Reply | Report Abuse | Link to thisSince truth and beauty are short-lived, we will have to wait for this "evolution".
Reply | Report Abuse | Link to thisI'd say they're equally belligerent in their own unique ways.
Reply | Report Abuse | Link to thisAndrea Akutagawa
http://liberate.it/
Addendum: We've all heard of reports of mothers killing in retribution for their children's death. A great amount of statistical evidence depends on context, I believe...
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Most men have more upper body strength then most women but if women were to have the same strength as men then maybe men wouldn’t be pointed out as physically abusive. As a woman I don’t think I would be able to beat a man physically unless I knew self-defense techniques or martial arts. But if I did have the strength then I might resort to physical fighting.
Reply | Report Abuse | Link to thisI agree. Men are designed to protect and provide but are no longer able to in the way they once did through physical expression, aggression and violence. Testosterone is not given its proper outlet in modern day society, and man has yet to fully evolve into this new way of life.
Reply | Report Abuse | Link to thisI would also like to say for those of you who are turning this into a battle of the sexes. Men and women are also designed to compliment eachother in every way. That which lacks in one is made up for in the other. We are also just as the same as we are different. Ultimately we are partners for carrying on the species. Love and life are the bottom line, the rest is bs.
As a female, I know for a fact that if I really wanted to I could use my legs to snap a guy's neck no problem and no struggle. And I don't care how much he benches nothing will pry that grip open.
Reply | Report Abuse | Link to thisWomen are also much better at enduring pain.
Unfortunately, I doubt this or any successive society of humans will survive long enough to produce any natural evolutionary moderation of male testosterone levels, but alternatives to natural selection might be employed out of necessity. Then again, natural male aggression may still intervene to dramatically reduce the excessive human population, if disease, environmental change or other agents don't.
Reply | Report Abuse | Link to thisI must painfully point out that, on a daily basis, both genders' behavior is guided far more by self-interest than cooperation, even among bonded pairs - such as they exist in modern societies.
In the meantime, viva la difference! There are far better ways for you to snap a man's neck with your legs than applying a vice-like grip!