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Lacking direct communiqu�s from ancient peoples, archaeologists turn to other clues--their structures, their artwork, their tools, even their very bones. Examining such relics, scientists attempt to fit the pieces into a comprehensive cultural picture. As fellow members of humanity, the ancient ones must have been very much like us in many ways. But the latest excavations are uncovering some surprising differences as well.

Consider the denizens of �atalh�y�k, in central Turkey, 9,000 years ago. Oddly, they walked atop their city and entered their houses from above. They had no sidewalks, no front doors. Yet they had a remarkably modern knack for sharing tasks between the sexes. In Egypt circa 1500 B.C.E., even stonecutters had the chance to learn to read and write in a community that greatly valued literacy. Not all the civilizations' tales end well, of course. In the face of local environmental decline, the prehistoric people of Malta developed a consuming obsession with death, which may have led to the culture's demise.

These civilizations, among the others featured in this special edition of Scientific American, demonstrate an impressive power to puzzle and intrigue us across the span of time. In the pages that follow, we invite you to contemplate our shared human heritage, in all its glorious--and inglorious--forms. --The Editors

Europe and Asia

The Iceman Reconsidered by James H. Dickson, Klaus Oeggl and Linda L. Handley
Where was the Iceman's home, and what was he doing at that high mountain pass where he died? Painstaking research-especially of plant remains found with the body-contradicts many of the initial speculations.

The Death Cults of Prehistoric Malta by Caroline Malone, Anthony Bonanno, Tancred Gouder, Simon Stoddart and David Trump
New archaeological excavations reveal that as the ancient island societies suffered from environmental decline, they developed an extreme religious preoccupation with life and death.

Uncovering the Keys to the Lost Indus Cities by Jonathan Mark Kenoyer
Recently excavated artifacts from Pakistan have inspired a reevaluation of one of the great early urban cultures-the enigmatic Indus Valley civilization.

Africa and the Middle East

Women and Men at �atalh�y�k by Ian Hodder
The largest known Neolithic settlement yields clues about the roles played by the sexes in early agricultural societies.

Rock Art in Southern Africa by Anne Solomon
Paintings and engravings made by ancestors of the San peoples encode the history and culture of a society thousands of years old.

Life and Death in Nabada by Joachim Bretschneider
Excavations in northern Syria reveal the metropolis of Nabada, founded 4,500 years ago. Its elaborate administration and culture rivaled those of the fabled cities of southern Mesopotamia.

The Tapestry of Power in a Mesopotamian City by Elizabeth C. Stone and Paul Zimansky
Mashkan-shapir was for a brief time one of the most important cities in the world. Its remains challenge traditional notions of power distribution in early urban society.

Daily Life in Ancient Egypt by Andrea G. McDowell
Workmen and their families lived some 3,000 years ago in the village now known as Deir el-Medina. Written records from the unusually well educated community offer fascinating descriptions of everyday activities.

Great Zimbabwe by Webber Ndoro
For centuries, this ancient Shona city stood at the hub of a vast trade network. The site has also been at the center of a bitter debate about African history and heritage.

The Americas

Precious Metal Objects of the Middle Sic�n by Izumi Shimada and Jo Ann Griffin
A Peruvian culture older than that of the Incas made unprecedented use of gold and other metals. Studies of Sic�n metalworking techniques offer hints about this mysterious society.

Life in the Provinces of the Aztec Empire by Michael E. Smith
The lives of the Aztec common people were far richer and more complex than the official histories would have us believe.

Reading the Bones of La Florida by Clark Spencer Larsen
New approaches are offering insight into the lives of Native Americans after the Europeans arrived. Their health declined not only because of disease but because of their altered diet and living circumstances.